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Tips untuk Survive dalam Percintaan Jarak Jauh

Ramai yang bertanyakan pada kami tips bagaimana untuk survive dalam percintaan jarak jauh. Bermacam-macam perasaan yang merunsingkan, menyedihkan dan memeningkan bila kita berada dalam situasi cinta jarak jauh ini. Pelbagai dugaan dan cabaran yang perlu kita hadapi.

Sudah banyak cerita yang kita dengar mengenai perkara ini. Ada yang dapat survive dan ada yang kecundang. Menangis dan sedih yang amat sangat apabila si dia berubah hati disebabkan rasa kesunyian. Namun begitu, di sini, kami ingin berkongsi dengan anda semua mengenai bagaimana untuk survive dalam percintaan jarak jauh.

Percaya pada pasangan

Apabila kita berjauhan dengan pasangan, kita hendaklah percaya dengan si dia. Pernah baca 5 Tips dalam Berpasangan? Di dalam tips itu ada dinyatakan betapa pentingnya kita saling mempercayai dalam berpasangan ini. Percayalah pada si dia yang dia akan setia dan masih menyayangi kita walaupun kita berada jauh dari dia.

Setia walaupun jauh

Memang pelbagai dugaan yang kita hadapi apabila kita berjauhan. Ketika kita berjauhan, kita akan terasa sunyi. Orang yang selalu kita jumpa, tiba-tiba kini jauh dari mata. Dan apabila berjauhan, hati menjadi sunyi. Dan pada masa inilah kawan-kawan menjadi penyeri. Namun begitu, walaupun kita masih mempunyai kawan, kawan hanyalah kawan. Ceria bersama kawan tidak sama dengan ceria apabila kita bersama dengan pasangan kita. Di sini, ada yang kecundang. Ada yang bercouple dengan kawan disebabkan terasa sunyi. Fikirkanlah, apa perasaan pasangan kita bila dapat tahu yang kita tidak setia? Dan letakkanlah diri kita di tempat dia. Adakah kita akan gembira dan suka jika kita dibuat demikian?

Berjumpalah walaupun seketika

Jangan jadikan jauh itu sebagai alasan. Cinta perlukan komitmen. Cinta juga adalah tanggungjawab. Walaupun jauh, cuba cari masa untuk berjumpa dengan si dia. Andai kata si jejaka duduk jauh di utara semenangjung dan si gadis duduk di hujung selatan semenanjung, cuba cari masa yang sesuai untuk berjumpa. Paling tidak pun bila ada cuti panjang. Janganlah tidak berjumpa langsung. Sudah pasti rindu di hati akan semakin memberontak bila kita berjauhan. Jadi, apabila ada masa kelapangan itu, rancanglah untuk berjumpa. Sudah pasti ini akan mengeratkan lagi hubungan dan dapat mengurangkan rasa rindu itu.


Tanyalah khabar

Setiap malam sebelum tidur itu kalau boleh cuba hubungi si dia tanyakan khabar. Buat secara selang seli. Hari ini anda yang call dia. Esok dia pula. Dengan ini baru la sama-sama merasa susah dan senang. Jangan mengharapkan si dia sahaja yang akan call anda. Sudah pasti dia akan berasa sukar untuk menghubungi anda jikalau dia sahaja yang perlu call anda. Memang cinta perlukan komitmen tetapi ia akan menjadi sukar bila sebelah pihak sahaja yang memberikan komitmen. Jadi sama-samalah membantu dalam membina percintaan ini.

Sambut hari ulang tahun bersama

Sekiranya tidak sibuk, cuba sambut birthday atau ulang tahun per-couple-an bersama-sama. Sekiranya birthday itu jatuh pada hari bekerja, sambutlah bersama-sama pada hujung minggu tersebut. Luangkan masa bersama untuk seketika sudah pasti dapat mengembirakan antara satu sama lain. Walaupun perjumpaan itu hanya sementara, tetapi kenangan ketika berjumpa bersama-sama sambil menyambut birthday sudah pasti akan terpahat kukuh di hati. Mungkin anda akan tersenyum sendirian apabila mengenangkan kembali kenangan manis sebegitu.

Jangan jadikan jarak sebagai pemusnah

Cinta jarak jauh memang sukar. Memang meronta-ronta hati bilamana rindu itu datang. Apabila keseorangan, sudah pasti kita akan terasa sangat kerinduan itu. Tetapi ingatlah, jangan jadikan jarak yang jauh itu sebagai pemusnah cinta anda. Jadikan ia sebagai satu cabaran yang akan memberikan anda lebih bersemangat untuk meneruskan cinta itu.

Akhir kata, walauapapun rintangan yang ada, jangan jadikan ia sebagai alasan dan penghalang. Tetapi jadikan ia sebagai sesuatu yang dapat menambahkan kasih sayang kita kepada si dia. Bila jauh kita akan merasa rindu bukan? Jadi jauh itu bukan satu perkara yang tidak baik cuma ianya merupakan salah satu cara untuk memupuk rasa kasih sayang kita dan mengajar kita untuk menjadi seorang kekasih yang setia.

Merajuk? Bagaimana untuk pujuk?

Jika tidak berlaku merajuk dalam perhubungan, bukan perhubungan maknanya. Tetapi, sekiranya si Dia merajuk. Apakah yang anda akan lakukan?
Kenapa merajuk?

Sebelum kita mengetahui cara untuk memujuk ini, kita harus tahu apakah menyebabkan seseorang itu merajuk. Seseorang itu merajuk disebabkan atas beberapa sebab.

1. Cemburu
Ya, ini merupakan faktor utama kenapa si Dia merajuk. Dia cemburu disebabkan ada sesuatu yang cuba mengambil anda dari dirinya. Seperti kawan-kawan, pekerjaan, keluarga dan sebagainya.

2. Tidak dapat apa yang diinginkan
Si Dia menginginkan sesuatu dari anda, tetapi anda tidak memberikannya. Sebagai contoh, Si Dia ingin memakan roti canai (kenapa pasal roti canai pulak ni?), tetapi anda tidak mahu, dan anda ingin makan benda lain. Jadi, si Dia pun merajuk sebab dia hendak jugak makan roti canai. Payah jugak ni.

3. Orang lain lebih hebat dari dia
Adakalanya dia akan merajuk untuk mendapatkan perhatian dari anda. Dan kadangkala, si Dia merajuk disebabkan ada sesuatu yang membuatkan dia berasa marah dan tidak selesa. Untuk mengubat perasaan dia itu, dia perlukan anda disamping dirinya tetapi dengan cara yang sangat berbeza -- merajuk.

Bagaimana nak pujuk?

Ok. Sekarang ini kita sudah mengetahui sebab kenapa si Dia boleh merajuk. Dan sekarang bagaimanakah cara untuk memujuknya. Diingatkan, tips-tips ini bukan langkah-langkah untuk memujuk, cuma sebagai panduan atau tips sahaja.

1. Terangkan perkara sebenar
Adalah lebih mudah berkata benar dari berdusta. Ceritakan kepada si Dia apa yang berlaku pada anda dan tanya pada si Dia kenapa dia merajuk. Berterus teranglah (baca tentang 5 Tips Dalam Berpasangan) dalam perhubungan anda. Janganlah berselindung. Dengan mengwujudkan budaya bertanya dan berkata benar ini, dapat mengeratkan perhubungan kerana, anda mengambil berat si Dia. Ini juga bermaksud anda menunjukkan bahawa anda menyayangi dia.

2. Bertolak ansurlah dan bijak dalam membuat keputusan
Memang sukar untuk kita bertolak ansur tetapi tidak bermakna kita kalah sekiranya kita mengalah. Dalam situasi sebegini, anda haruslah bijak dalam membuat sesuatu keputusan. Sekiranya si Dia merajuk dan anda tidak berjaya memujuknya, gunakan gaya anda yang tersendiri dalam memujuk hatinya. Dengan ini, anda kelihatan bijak dalam membuat keputusan.

3. Ucapkan kata-kata "manis"
Manis tidak semestinya manis bukan? Ketika si Dia tengah merajuk, cuba anda bergurau senda dengan dia dengan menggelarkan si Dia, "bucuk", "comot", "manje" dan sebagainya. Dalam pada itu, selit-selitkan ayat-ayat power anda dalam perbualan tetapi masih mengekalkan perkataan-perkataan manis seperti yang saya sebutkan tadi. Adalah amat kelakar bagi saya sehinggakan saya pun sedang tersengih pada ketika ini. ;))

4. Nyanyikan lagu buatnya
Ha...tips ini merupakan bagi saya tips yang paling ultimate. Kalau ditanya, berapa ramai yang sanggup nyanyi untuk kekasihnya? Pernah tak anda menyanyikan lagu untuk kekasih anda? Mungkin jawapannya ramai yang mengatakan tidak. Tetapi, saya pernah. Saya tidak berkata bohong. Saya pernah dendangkan lagu kepada kekasih saya. Dan kami siap berkaraoke di dalam phone lagi. Kami berduet bersama-sama. Adakah si Dia akan tersenyum dan ketawa? Sudah pasti ya. Kerana dapat mendengar suara buah hatinya menghiburkan dirinya. Tidakkah ianya menggembirakan? Sudah pasti senyuman terukir di bibirnya.

Seperti yang saya katakan tadi, tips-tips ini bukanya langkah-langkah tetapi merupakan panduan bagi anda dalam memujuk pasangan anda. Mungkin ada di antara tips ini tidak sesuai dilakukan kepada pasangan anda tetapi tips ini mungkin berjaya membuatkan si Dia tersenyum.

Sekiranya anda mempunyai tips-tips tambahan, anda boleh berkongsi dengan kami dalam ruangan Ungkapan Cinta di bawah. Semoga si Dia tersenyum kembali!

Dilema Lelaki Encik mEnTeiL

Pertamanya korang kena baca Bertemu Kembali Cinta Pertama.. Rentetan dari peristiwa itu aku dapat rasakan si dia melalui perubahan terhadap aku. Pertama, si dia dah pandai nak bermanja² dengan aku, keduanya jumlah SMS yang aku terima meningkat satu kali ganda.. Pada aku itu mungkin perkara normal sebab dah lama tak jumpa dan bila bertemu menjadi adat la lebih rapat kan..

Selang dua tiga hari selepas itu, dia ada mengadu pada aku perihal tunangnya yang teruk.. Pasal apa aku tak berminat nak tau sebab tunang dia sendiri aku tak kenal.. Tak lama lepas tu dia ambil keputusan untuk memutuskan ikatan pertunangannya dan berniat ingin menyatukan kembali cintanya yang tergantung hampir 10 tahun dulu dengan aku.. Dia kata dia rasa lebih happy dengan aku.. What the …. ??!

“ingat aku tong shieldtox ke?? Kalau ada nyamuk baru sebok nak sembur?!” kata hati aku yang ego..

“takkan sebab aku pulak dia nak putus tunang” kata hati aku yang risau..

“senang betul dia nak putus ngan tunang dia n senang pulak dia nak sambung cintoi ngan aku” kata aku yang masih ragu..

Macam biasa kalau dalam dilema dan kekeliruan datang dah tentu persoalan akan timbul kan? Ye.. Aku mengaku ada lagi sayang kat dia walaupun sikit.. Tapi aku masih lagi lelaki dan ada pertimbangan.. Takkan nak mencipta satu perhubungan sampai begini tragis dan melukakan hati yang lain..

Menurut katanya, tunangnya itu (kini dah jadi bekas) sendiri yang inginkan keputusan tu.. Aku tak dapat nak pastikan sebab aku sendiri tak kenal dengan lelaki malang tu.. Katanya lelaki itu dah lama melukakan hati dia dan dah lama jugak dia bersabar.. Persoalannya (lagi) kenapa baru sekarang buat keputusan.. Tak sampai seminggu aku jumpa dia beb! Apa cerita?

Ntahla.. Hati aku 30% dengan berat ingin menerimanya.. Apa kata korang?

menteil yang dulu dikenali dengan dr. love kini mengalami masalah cinta.. haha.. dish!

entry dan kisah nie lebih kurang sama je dengan Dilema Lelaki Encik mEnTeiL dulu.. sebab tu aku letak pada version 2..

Bertemu Kembali Cinta Pertama

Pernah jumpa balik cinta pertama korang? Macam mana rasanya? Tersyahdu atau terkelakar? Hehe.. Nak dijadikan cerita petang semalam ada la satu nombor yang tidak dikenali.. Rupa²nya nombor talian maxis cinta pertama aku.. Aku kenalkan dia F je la ye.. Balas punya balas SMS tak sangka di lokasi yang sama dengan aku waktu tu.. Tanpa tunggu panjang ape lagi, ajak jumpe la… Er.. Dia yang ajak yer…

Tak disangka dia macam dulu lagi.. Rasanya dah lebih 6 tahun aku tak jumpa dia.. Dia still chinese look idamanku.. Haha.. Apakan daya dia dah bertunang..

Lama jugak bersembang dengan dia.. Dan macam² la aku tau hal perihal terbaru dia.. Apakan daya sekali lagi, adik dia dah merengek ajak balik.. cis!! nak gi berdating jumpa aku bawak adik buat apa?

Bila dah habis perjumpaan tu, tergelak aku sendiri bila terfikirkan macam mana cinta monyet aku dulu… Ye la.. Cinta zaman sekolah.. Apa pon jadi.. Cinta macam mana berdating dalam kelas.. Cinta berbalas surat.. ye la.. Zaman aku dulu manada handset lagi.. Anak orang kaya je ada.. Paling aku tak lupa kalau aku tulis surat.. Kompem panjang berjela.. Tapi dia balas sekerat dua jer.. Cis!!

Tapi sebenarnya kitorang tak putus pon.. Cuma lost contact jer.. Akhirnya dua² diam.. Putus macam tu jer.. Tapi aku still ingat macam mana cinta aku berputik dengan pandangan pertama mata dia di tangga.. Haha.. Cam lawak jer..

Apa pon aku happy tengok dia happy.. Sekurang²nya dia tak merana kalau still dengan aku lagi.. Hehe.. Itulah namanya pengorbanan dalam percintaan.. Cinta tak semestinya bersatu…

aku sebenarnya banyak masa on9 di alam maya nie.. tapi aku still sebok dengan projek internet aku.. maapkan aku ok.. hehe.. salam..

Cinta Pandang Pertama Membawa Bahagia

apabila ditanyakan bagaimana mereka boleh bertemu dan berkahwin, dengan bangganya mereka berkata inilah berkat cinta pandang pertama.Apa istimewanya cinta pandang pertama?

Berdasarkan kata-kata di atas dapat kita rumuskan bahawa hasil cinta pandang pertama, sesuatu perkahwinan itu akan membawa kebahagiaan. Tetapi tahukah anda mengapa cinta pandang pertama dan bagaimana dikatakan cinta pandang pertama, dan mengapa cinta pandang pertama itu boleh menjadikan sesuatu pasangan bahagia?

Di sini saya ingin mengajak remaja termasuk pelajar universiti yang sedang mencari pasangan supaya bersama saya meneliti isu ini dengan penuh minat. Semoga dengan ini anda semua akan boleh mencapai kebahagiaan hasil cinta pandang pertama.

Pandang pertama bermaksud, seseorang lelaki atau wanita yang secara kebetulan terserepak dengan pasangan yang belum pernah kenal. Apabila dikatakan cinta pandang pertama, bererti hasil pertemuan yang tidak terancang itu sudah ada bibit cinta antara kedua, rasa cinta mula berputik di hati. Pada pertemuan itu mereka mungkin tidak sempat berkata-kata, tetapi sudah tersimpan dalam hati bahawa “dia sesuai untuk aku.”

Hasil pertemuan itu, salah seorang daripadanya akan cuba merisik dengan bertanya-tanya kawan masing-masing kalau-kalau mengenali orang yang dimaskudkan itu. Apakah yang menyebabkan seseorang itu mahu didekati dan dikenali secara lebih dekat?

Ya, sudah pasti pada lelaki atau wanita yang dipandang itu terdapat keistimewaan. Mungkin terpancar pada wajahnya akhlak yang baik, mungkin pada tingkah lakunya terserlah kasih sayangnya. Dan mungkin pada rupanya yang manis terserlah hati yang suci.

Bolehlah pandang pertama itu sudah boleh dibuat ukuran? Kenapa tidak? Lazimnya pertemuan pertama tanpa terancang akan terserlah keaslian peribadinya. Maknanya kalau kita jumpa seseorang yang kita belum kenal, kita akan kenal perwatakan asalnya. Jadi, kalau dia seorang yang baik budinya, sepanjang pertemuan itu dia akan menampakkan kebaikannya. Sebaliknya jika dia seorang yang panas baran sebagai contoh, sewaktu pandang pertama itu sudah nampak riaknya, sudah nampak kelibat buruknya. Kalaupun tidak nampak pada awalnya, akan terlihat juga sesekali kemudiannya.

Inilah yang dikatakan cinta pandang pertama. Pandang mata itu biasanya tidak menipu malah orang yang dilihat juga tidak sempat menipu. Apabila hati sudah berkenan tindakan seterusnya perlu disusuli iaitu jalinan secara yang dibenarkan oleh Islam. Selagi mereka tidak mencetuskan dosa, sudah pasti mereka boleh menjadi suami isteri yang bahagia.

Memahami maksud di atas, maka pertemuan yang terancang tidak boleh dikategorikan sebagai cinta pandang pertama. Sebagai contoh, perkenalan melalui internet, SMS atau telefon, setelah sekian lama bercinta, tentu mereka merancang pertemuan empat mata. Siapa yang boleh pastikan bahawa pertemuan itu akan menampilkan watak yang tulen? Saya pasti pertemuan terancang itu akan mengundang watak pelakon yang pastinya berlainan daripada asal.

Bayangkan jika hasil pertemuan itu mereka berakhir di jinjang pelamin, adakah perkahwinan mereka boleh bahagia? Mungkin dalam kehidupan itu penuh lakonan demi cinta. Kalaupun boleh bahagia, mereka terpaksa berhadapan dengan krisis yang memeritkan.

Di sini saya sekali lagi mengajak remaja termasuk pelajar universiti yang sedang mencari pasangan agar mencari cinta, dapatkah cinta pandang pertama. Setelah ada ciri-ciri kebaikan yang dicari, risiklah secara lebih dekat melalui wakil yang jujur. Setelah itu, binalah hubungan secara lebih dekat dengan bertemankan kawan yang amanah. Setelah berpuas hati, mintalah ibu bapa rancang peminangan dan seterusnya perkahwinan.

Percayalah kalau kaedah ini dapat diikuti, pasangan itu akan bahagia sehingga ke dalam syurga.

lembu

Mengurat Dan Bercinta Menurut Islam

Adalah sesuatu yang amat perlu untuk seseorang itu memulakan mukadimah cinta dengan mengurat. Apakah hukum mengurat dan bercinta dalam Islam? Apakah dibenarkan seorang lelaki muslim berbual dengan perempuan muslim?. Semua persoalan ini mungkin bermain-main dibenak fikiran remaja muslim yang sangat menitikberatkan ajaran Islam. Bagi sahabat remaja muslim yang kurang mengambil berat persoalan ini, mungkin mereka akan mengunakan formula “pakai bedal sahaja”. Salah tanggapan dan silap fahaman terhadap persoalan ini boleh mewujudkan konflik dalam diri remaja muslim.

Secara kasarnya ada sesetengah ulama menganggap mengurat dan bercinta itu halal tetapi kebanyakkan ulama yang lain pula menganggap haram. Bagaimanapun dikalangan ulama Fekah terdapat beberapa orang ulama yang merupakan pencinta yang hebat seperti Daud az-Zahiri yang merupakan imam Mazhab az-zahiri.

Sebenarnya mengurat dan bercinta sama-sama penting dalam kehidupan. Tiada siapa yang dapat lari daripada mengurat dan bercinta termasuk mereka yang bercinta selepas berkahwin. Hal ini kerana mereka yang bercinta selepas berkahwin akan melihat bakal isteri sebelum diijabkabulkan.

Selain itu jika cinta dianggap sebagai mukadimah kepada perkahwinan, maka mengurat pula dianggap sebagai mukadimah kepada bercinta. Kedua-dua ini berkait antara satu sama lain kecuali bagi mereka yang berkahwin atas pilihan keluarga.

Mengurat dan bercinta dianggap berguna jika ia membawa kepada kebaikan. Sebagai contoh mengurat dan bercinta yang disusuli dengan perkahwinan dan mendirikan rumah tangga adalah berguna kerana ia membawa kebaikan. Dari sini terbentuk pula keluarga dan daripada keluarga ini terbentuk pula masyarakat seterusnya negara.Tidakkah dalam konteks ini mengurat dan bercinta tepat dengan ajaran Islam? Jawabnya ia memang bertepatan dengan ajaran Islam kerana manusia yang diamanahkan Allah sebagai khalifah di muka bumi ini perlu meneruskan survival sehingga ke hari kiamat. Kemungkinan jika manusia tidak mengurat dan bercinta, kita akan pupus di dunia seperti pupusnya dinasour dan ini sudah tentu menyalahi amanah Allah itu.

Namun dari sudut lain, mengurat dan bercinta dianggap tidak berguna dan tidak membawa kepada kebaikan. Mengurat dan bercinta seperti ini tidak menjadi mukadimah kepada perkahwinan sebaliknya mukadimah kepada melahirkan anak luar nikah atau mencampakkan anak yang tidak berdosa ke dalam tong sampah dan longkang.

Mengurat dan bercinta seperti ini dilarang dan diharamkan dalam Islam. Selain itu perlu diingatkan juga bahawa tindakan seseorang itu mengurat dan bercinta itu biasanya bertitik tolak daripada perasaan dan emosi, maka dengan itu mudah sekali terjerumus dalam perkara-perkara yang tidak baik. Oleh itu sesiapa sahaja yang berhadapan dengan ajakan perasaan dan emosi untuk mengurat dan bercinta perlu berusaha sedaya upaya mengunakan kewarasan akal.
Malah sebagai seorang muslim kita juga perlu mengelak daripada konteks fizikal atau luaran yang boleh mencetuskan keghairahan seks yang seterusnya menyebabkan berlaku perlanggaran hukum Allah iaitu perzinaan. Dalam hal ini adalah amat perlu setiap individu muslim berpegang kepada tanggugjawab menjaga dan memelihara aurat kerana persoalan keghairahan seks mempunyai hubung kait yang amat besar untuk berlakunya perzinaan.

Bagi mengelak daripada perkara-perkara terkutuk ini berlaku, panduan rasulullah perlu dipatuhi. Baginda melarang orang Islam supaya jangan melampau dalam mengurat. Malah baginda menyuruh mereka bercinta kerana Allah iaitu mencintai orang yang dikasihi kerana Allah.

Terdapat beberapa riwayat menceritakan Nabi Muhammad s.a.w membenarkan hamba menyanyikan lagu mengurat dipanggil ghazl. Dalam sebuah hadis yang diriwayatkan oleh Ibn Majah, Rasulullah menyuruh Aisyah menghantar seorang hamba yang pandai menyanyi lagu ghazl kepada pengantin kaum Ansar yang menjadi kerabat Aisyah. Ini kerana menurut Nabi, kaum Ansar ada keramaian termasuk mendendangkan lagu-lagu ghazl. Baginda berkata : Sesungguhnya kaum Ansar adalah kaum yang ada pada mereka ghazl. (Ibnu Majah. Hadis No 1890)

Ghazl bermaksud mengurat tetapi ghazl dalam beberapa hadis nabi bermaksud mendendangkan lagu-lagu cinta yang sunyi daripada kata-kata baik dan sebagainya. Dalam hadis lain yang diriwayatkan oleh al-Bukhari,muslim dan lain-lain, Rasulullah menginggatkan supaya seorang penyanyi keluarga baginda bernama Anjasyah supaya jangan terlalu melampau mendendangkan lagu-lagu yang memperkatakan tentang mengurat dan bercinta.

Dato Dr Mashitah Ibrahim, penolong profesor di Jabatan al-Quran dan Sunah, Kulliah Ilmu Wahyu dan Warisan Islam, Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Malaysia (UIAM) memberi penjelasan mengenai cinta. Cinta ujarnya sering dikaitkan dengan barat atau Bollywood tetapi sebenarnya orang terlupa bahawa pokok persoalan cinta merupakan matlamat asasi dalam Islam.

Islam adalah agama yang membawa matlamat cinta. Cinta kepada Allah, cinta pada rasul, cinta kepada negara dan cinta sesama manusia. Sebab itulah rasulullah menekankan dalam mendidik anak-anak daripada kecil lagi diterapkan soal cinta. Dalam sebuah hadis, Nabi bersabda: tanamkan dalam diri anak-anak kamu cintakan Allah, cintakan Rasul, cintakan ahli keluarga Rasulullah dan cintakan membaca Al-Quran.

Ini menunjukkan cinta itu suatu yang penting diterapkan dalam diri setiap muslim sehinggakan Nabi s.a.w bersabda bahawa tidak masuk syurga sehingga kamu belajar cinta-mencintai diantara satu sama lain.

Remaja bercinta jelas beliau bukan suatu perkara yang melanggar fitrah. Ia satu fitrah tetapi perlu diaturkan bagaimana cara mereka bercinta. Cinta tidak boleh berdasarkan emosi semata-mata, REMAJA mesti ada rasa tanggungjawab.

Anise

This article is about the Pimpinella species (not to be confused with star anise, Illicium verum, or with Japanese star anise, Illicium anisatum).Anise

Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Eudicots
(unranked): Asterids
Order: Apiales
Family: Apiaceae
Genus: Pimpinella
Species: P. anisum
Binomial name
Pimpinella anisum
L.


Anise (pronunciation: /ˈænɪs/;[1]), Pimpinella anisum, also called aniseed, is a flowering plant in the family Apiaceae native to the eastern Mediterranean region and Southwest Asia. Its flavor resembles that of liquorice, fennel, and tarragon.Biology

Anise is a herbaceous annual plant growing to 3 ft (0.91 m) tall. The leaves at the base of the plant are simple, 0.5–2 in (1.3–5.1 cm) long and shallowly lobed, while leaves higher on the stems are feathery pinnate, divided into numerous leaves. The flowers are white, approximately 3 mm diameter, produced in dense umbels. The fruit is an oblong dry schizocarp, 3 – 5 mm long. It is these seed pods that are referred to as "aniseed".[2]

Anise is a food plant for the larvae of some Lepidoptera species (butterflies and moths), including the lime-speck pug and wormwood pug.
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Cultivation

Anise plants grow best in light, fertile, well drained soil. The seeds should be planted as soon as the ground warms up in spring. Because the plants have a taproot, they do not transplant well after being established, so they should be started either in their final location or transplanted while the seedlings are still small.[3]
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Production

Western cuisines have long used anise as a moderately popular herb to flavor some dishes, drinks, and candies, and so the word has come to connote both the species of herb and the licorice-like flavor. The most powerful flavor component of the essential oil of anise, anethole, is found in both anise and an unrelated spice called star anise (Illicium verum) that features prominently in South Asian, Southeast Asian, and East Asian dishes. Star anise is considerably less expensive to produce, and has gradually displaced Pimpinella anisum in Western markets. While formerly produced in larger quantities, by 1999 world production of the essential oil of anise was only 8 tonnes, compared to 400 tonnes from star anise.[4]Composition

As with all spices, the composition of anise varies considerably with origin and cultivation method. These are typical values for the main constituents.[5]
Moisture: 9-13%
Protein: 18%
Fatty oil: 8-23%
Essential oil: 2-7%
Starch: 5%
N-free extract: 22-28%
Crude fibre: 12-25%

Essential oil yielded by distillation is generally around 2-3% and anethole makes up 80-90% of this.Culinary

Anise is sweet and very aromatic, distinguished by its licorice-like flavor.[2] The seeds, whole or ground, are used in a wide variety of regional and ethnic confectioneries, including the black jelly bean, British aniseed balls, Australian humbugs, New Zealand aniseed wheels, Italian pizzelle, German Pfeffernusse and Springerle, Austrian Anisebögen, Netherland muisjes, Norwegian knotts, New Mexican Bizcochitos, and Peruvian picarones. It is a key ingredient in Mexican atole de anís or champurrado, which is similar to hot chocolate, and it is taken as a digestive after meals in India.
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Liquor

Anise is used to flavor Middle Eastern arak, Colombian aguardiente, French spirits absinthe, anisette and pastis, Greek ouzo, Bulgarian mastika, German Jägermeister, Italian sambuca, Dutch Brokmöpke, Peruvian and Spanish anís, Mexican Xtabentún and Turkish raki. In these liquors, it is clear, but on addition of water becomes cloudy, a phenomenon known as the ouzo effect. It is believed to be one of the secret ingredients in the French liqueur Chartreuse. It is also used in some root beers, such as Virgil's in the United States.
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Medicinal“ The seed wasteth and consumeth winde, and is good against belchings and upbraidings of the stomacke, alaieth gripings of the belly, provoketh urine gently, maketh abundance of milke, and stirreth up bodily lust: it staieth the laske, (diarrhea) and also the white flux in women. ”

—John Gerard: The Herball, 1597, p. 880, side 903[6]

Anise, like fennel, contains anethole, a phytoestrogen.[7]
Anise has been used to treat menstrual cramps.[8]
The main use of anise in European herbal medicine was for its carminative effect, as noted by John Gerard in his "Great Herball,"[6] an early encyclopedia of herbal medicine.
The essential oil has reportedly been used as an insecticide against head-lice and mites.[9]
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Miscellaneous
In the 1860s, American Civil War nurse Maureen Hellstrom used anise seeds as an early form of antiseptic. This method was later found to have caused high levels of toxicity in the blood and was discontinued shortly thereafter.[8]
According to Pliny the Elder, anise was used as a cure for sleeplessness, chewed with alexanders and a little honey in the morning to freshen the breath, and, when mixed with wine, as a remedy for asp bites (N.H. 20.72).[10]
In Pakistani and Indian cuisine, no distinction is made between anise and fennel. Therefore, the same name (saunf) is usually given to both of them. Some use the term patli (thin) saunf or velayati (foreign) saunf to distinguish anise from fennel, although Gujarati has the term anisi.
In the Middle East, water is boiled with about a tablespoon of aniseed per teacup to make a special hot tea called yansoon. This tea is given to mothers in Egypt when they are nursing.
Builders of steam locomotives in Britain incorporated capsules of aniseed oil into white metal plain bearings, so the distinctive smell would give warning in case of overheating.[11]
Anise can be made into a liquid scent and is used for both drag hunting and fishing. It is put on fishing lures to attract fish.[12][13]

Angelica archangelica

Angelica archangelica, commonly known as Garden Angelica, Holy Ghost, Wild Celery, and Norwegian angelica, is a biennial plant from the Apiaceae family Apiaceae family, formerly known as Umbelleferae. Synonyms include Archangelica officinalis Hoffm., and Archangelica officinalis var. himalaica C.B.Clarke).During its first year it only grows leaves, but during its second year its fluted stem can reach a height of two meters (or six feet). Its leaves are composed of numerous small leaflets, divided into three principal groups, each of which is again subdivided into three lesser groups. The edges of the leaflets are finely toothed or serrated. The flowers, which blossom in July, are small and numerous, yellowish or greenish in colour, are grouped into large, globular umbels, which bear pale yellow, oblong fruits. Angelica only grows in damp soil, preferably near rivers or deposits of water. Not to be confused with the edible Pastinaca sativa, or Wild Parsnip.Angelica archangelica grows wild in Finland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Greenland, the Faroe Islands and Iceland, mostly in the northern parts of the countries. It is cultivated in France, mainly in the Marais Poitevin, a marsh region close to Niort in the départment Deux-Sèvres. It also grows in certain regions in Germany like the Harz mountains, and in certain regions of Romania, like the Rodna mountains.Usage/history

Angelica archangelica

From the 10th century on, angelica was cultivated as a vegetable and medicinal plant,[2] and achieved great popularity in Scandinavia in the 12th century and is still used today, especially in Sami culture. A flute-like instrument with a clarinet-like sound can be made of its hollow stem, probably as a toy for children. Linnaeus reported that Sami peoples used it in reindeer milk, as it is often used as a flavoring agent.

In 1602, angelica was introduced in Niort, which had just been ravaged by the plague, and it has been popular there ever since. It is used to flavour liqueurs or aquavits (e.g. Chartreuse, Bénédictine, Vermouth and Dubonnet), omelettes and trout, and as jam. The long bright green stems are also candied and used as decoration.Angelica is unique amongst the Umbelliferae for its pervading aromatic odour, a pleasant perfume entirely different from Fennel, Parsley, Anise, Caraway or Chervil. One old writer compares it to Musk, others liken it to Juniper. Even the roots are fragrant, and form one of the principal aromatics of European growth - the other parts of the plant have the same flavour, but their active principles are considered more perishable.

Angelica contains a variety of chemicals which have been shown to have medicinal properties, and the plant is used as a digestive aid.[3]

The essential oil of the roots of Angelica archangelica contains β-terebangelene, C10H16, and other terpenes; the oil of the seeds also contains β-terebangelene, together with methylethylacetic acid and hydroxymyristic acid.[citation needed] The fruits are tiny mericarps, frequently mistaken for seeds, and are used in the production of absinthe and other alcoholic drinks.[3]

Seeds of a Persian spice plant known as Golpar (Heracleum persicum) are often erroneously labeled as "angelica seeds." True angelica seeds are rarely available from spice dealers.[citation needed]
Etymology

Archangelica comes from the Greek word "arkhangelos" (=arch-angel), due to the myth that it was the archangel Michael who told of its use as medicine.

In Finnish it is called väinönputki, in Kalaallisut kuanneq, in Sami fádnu, boska and rássi, in English garden angelica, in German arznei-engelwurz, in Dutch grote engelwortel, in Persian Sonbol-e Khatāyi سنبل خطایی, in Swedish kvanne, in Norwegian kvann, in Danish kvan, in Icelandic hvönn, and in Faroese it has the name hvonn.

Aloe vera

Aloe vera, pronounced /ˈæloʊ ˈvɪrə/[1], also known as the true aloe or medicinal aloe, is a species of succulent plant in the genus Aloe that is believed to have originated in the Sudan[citation needed]. Aloe vera grows in arid climates and is widely distributed in Africa, India, Nepal and other arid areas.[citation needed]

The species is frequently cited as being used in herbal medicine. Many scientific studies on the use of extracts of Aloe vera have been undertaken, some of them conflicting.[2][3][4][5]

Despite these limitations, there is some preliminary evidence that Aloe vera extracts may be useful in the treatment of wound and burn healing, minor skin infections, sebaceous cysts, diabetes, and elevated blood lipids in humans.[4] These positive effects are thought to be due to the presence of compounds such as polysaccharides, mannans, anthraquinones, and lectins.[4][6][7]

Description

Aloe vera is a stemless or very short-stemmed succulent plant growing to 60–100 cm (24–39 in) tall,spreading by offsets. The leaves are thick and fleshy, green to grey-green, with some varieties showing white flecks on the upper and lower stem surfaces.[8] The margin of the leaf is serrated and has small white teeth. The flowers are produced in summer on a spike up to 90 cm (35 in) tall, each flower pendulous, with a yellow tubular corolla 2–3 cm (0.8–1.2 in) long.[8][9] Like other Aloe species, Aloe vera forms arbuscular mycorrhiza, a symbiosis that allows the plant better access to mineral nutrients in soil.[10]

Taxonomy and etymology

Spotted forms of Aloe vera are sometimes known as Aloe vera var. chinensis.

The species has a number of synonyms: A. barbadensis Mill., Aloe indica Royle, Aloe perfoliata L. var. vera and A. vulgaris Lam.,[11][12] and common names including Chinese Aloe, Indian Aloe, true Aloe, Barbados Aloe, burn Aloe, first aid plant.[9][13][14][15][16] The species name vera means "true" or "genuine."[13] Some literature identifies the white spotted form of Aloe vera as Aloe vera var. chinensis,[17][18] however, the species varies widely with regard to leaf spots [19] and it has been suggested that the spotted form of Aloe vera may be conspecific with A. massawana.[20] The species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753 as Aloe perfoliata var. vera,[21] and was described again in 1768 by Nicolaas Laurens Burman as Aloe vera in Flora Indica on the 6th of April and by Philip Miller as Aloe barbadensis some ten days after Burman in the Gardener's Dictionary.[22]

Techniques based on DNA comparison suggest that Aloe vera is relatively closely related to Aloe perryi, a species that is endemic to Yemen.[23] Similar techniques, using chloroplast DNA sequence comparison and ISSR profiling have also suggested that Aloe vera is closely related to Aloe forbesii, Aloe inermis, Aloe scobinifolia, Aloe sinkatana, and Aloe striata.[24] With the exception of South African species A. striata, these Aloe species are native to Socotra (Yemen), Somalia, and Sudan.[24] The lack of obvious natural populations of the species have led some authors to suggest that Aloe vera may be of hybrid origin.[25]hi
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Distribution

The natural range of Aloe vera is unclear, as the species has been widely cultivated throughout the world. Naturalised stands of the species occur in the southern half of the Arabian peninsula, through North Africa (Morocco, Mauritania, Egypt) as well as Sudan and neighbouring countries, along with the Canary, Cape Verde, and Madeira Islands.[11] This distribution is somewhat similar to the one of Euphorbia balsamifera, Pistacia atlantica, and a few others, suggesting that a dry sclerophyl forest once covered large areas, but has been dramatically reduced due to desertification in the Sahara, leaving these few patches isolated. Several closely related species (or sometimes identical) can be found on the two extreme sides of the Sahara: Dragon trees and Aeonium being some of the most representative examples.

The species was introduced to China and various parts of southern Europe in the 17th century.[26] The species is widely naturalised elsewhere, occurring in temperate and tropical regions of Australia, Barbados, Belize, Nigeria, Paraguay and the US[19][27] It has been suggested that the actual species' distribution is the result of human cultivation and that the taxonomy could be doubtful too.[20]
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Cultivation

Aloe vera can be grown as an ornamental plant.

Aloe vera has been widely grown as an ornamental plant. The species is popular with modern gardeners as a putatively medicinal plant and due to its interesting flowers, form, and succulence. This succulence enables the species to survive in areas of low natural rainfall, making it ideal for rockeries and other low-water use gardens.[8] The species is hardy in zones 8–11, although it is intolerant of very heavy frost or snow.[9][28] The species is relatively resistant to most insect pests, though spider mites, mealy bugs, scale insects, and aphid species may cause a decline in plant health.[29][30] In pots, the species requires well-drained sandy potting soil and bright sunny conditions; however, in very hot and humid tropical or subtropical climates, aloe plants should be protected from direct sun and rain, as they will burn and/or turn mushy easily under these conditions. The use of a good-quality commercial propagation mix or pre-packaged "cacti and succulent mix" is recommended, as they allow good drainage.[31] Terracotta pots are preferable as they are porous.[31] Potted plants should be allowed to completely dry prior to re-watering. When potted aloes become crowded with "pups" growing from the sides of the "mother plant," they should be divided and re-potted to allow room for further growth and help prevent pest infestations. During winter, Aloe vera may become dormant, during which little moisture is required. In areas that receive frost or snow, the species is best kept indoors or in heated glasshouses.[9] Large scale agricultural production of Aloe vera is undertaken in Australia,[32] Bangladesh, Cuba,[33] the Dominican Republic, China, Mexico,[34] India,[35] Jamaica,[36] Kenya and South Africa,[37] along with the USA[38] to supply the cosmetics industry with Aloe vera gel.
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Uses
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Claims of medical properties

Aloe vera gel being used to make a dessert.

Scientific evidence for the cosmetic and therapeutic effectiveness of aloe vera is limited and when present is frequently contradictory.[2][3] Despite this, the cosmetic and alternative medicine industries regularly make claims regarding the soothing, moisturizing, and healing properties of aloe vera, especially via Internet advertising.[4][39][40][41][42] Aloe vera gel is used as an ingredient in commercially available lotions, yogurt, beverages, and some desserts.[43][44][45]

Aloe vera juice is used for consumption and relief of digestive issues such as heartburn and irritable bowel syndrome, although it bears significant potential to be toxic when taken orally.[46] It is common practice for cosmetic companies to add sap or other derivatives from Aloe vera to products such as makeup, tissues, moisturizers, soaps, sunscreens, incense, shaving cream, and shampoos.[43] Other uses for extracts of aloe vera include the dilution of semen for the artificial fertilization of sheep,[47] use as fresh food preservative,[48] and use in water conservation in small farms.[49] The supposed therapeutic uses of Aloe vera are not exclusive to the species and may be found to a lesser or greater degree in the gels of all aloes, and indeed are shared with large numbers of plants belonging to the family Asphodelaceae. Bulbine frutescens, for example, is used widely for the treatment of burns and a host of skin afflictions.[50]

Aloe vera has a long association with herbal medicine, although it is not known when its medical applications were first suspected. Early records of Aloe vera use appear in the Ebers Papyrus from 16th century BC,[16] in both Dioscorides' De Materia Medica and Pliny the Elder's Natural History written in the mid-first century CE[16] along with the Juliana Anicia Codex produced in 512 AD.[43] Aloe vera is non-toxic, with no known side effects, provided the aloin has been removed by processing. Taking aloe vera that contains aloin in excess amounts has been associated with various side-effects.[4][5][51] However, the species is used widely in the traditional herbal medicine of China, Japan, Russia, South Africa, the United States, Jamaica, Latin America and India.[4]

Aloe vera may be effective in treatment of wounds.[5] Evidence on the effects of its sap on wound healing, however, is limited and contradictory.[5] Some studies, for example, show that aloe vera promotes the rates of healing,[52][53] while, in contrast, other studies show that wounds to which aloe vera gel was applied were significantly slower to heal than those treated with conventional medical preparations.[54][55] A more recent review (2007) concludes that the cumulative evidence supports the use of aloe vera for the healing of first to second degree burns.[56] In addition to topical use in wound or burn healing, internal intake of aloe vera has been linked in preliminary research with improved blood glucose levels in diabetics,[57][58] and with lower blood lipids in hyperlipidaemic patients,[59] but also with acute hepatitis (liver disease).[51] In other diseases, preliminary studies have suggested oral aloe vera gel may reduce symptoms and inflammation in patients with ulcerative colitis.[60] Compounds extracted from aloe vera have been used as an immunostimulant that aids in fighting cancers in cats and dogs;[6] however, this treatment has not been scientifically tested in humans.

Topical application of aloe vera may be effective for genital herpes and psoriasis.[61] However, it is not effective for the prevention of radiation-induced injuries. Although anecdotally useful, it has not been proven to offer protection from sunburn or suntan.[62] In a double-blind clinical trial, both the group using an aloe vera containing dentifrice and the group using a fluoridated dentifrice had a reduction of gingivitis and plaque, but no statistically significant difference was found between the two.[63]

Aloe vera extracts might have antibacterial and antifungal activities, which possibly could help treat minor skin infections, such as boils and benign skin cysts and may inhibit growth of fungi causing tinea.[64] For bacteria, inner-leaf gel from aloe vera was shown in one study to inhibit growth of Streptococcus and Shigella species in vitro.[65] In contrast, aloe vera extracts failed to show antibiotic properties against Xanthomonas species.[66]
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Commodity uses

Aloe vera is now widely used on facial tissues, where it is promoted as a moisturiser and/or anti-irritant to reduce chafing of the nose of users suffering hay-fever or cold.[67] It has also been suggested that biofuels could be obtained from Aloe vera seeds.[68] It can also be used to retwist dreadlocked hair, a favourite agent for vegans and those preferring natural products. Aloe vera is also used for soothing the skin, and keeping the skin moist to help avoid flaky scalp and skin in harsh and dry weather. Aloe vera may also be used as a moisturizer for oily skin.
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Historical uses

Aloin was the common ingredient in over-the-counter (OTC) laxative products in the United States prior to 2003, when the Food and Drug Administration ruled that aloin was a class III ingredient, thereby banning its use.[69] It should be noted that unprocessed aloe that contains aloin is used primarily as a laxative, whereas processed Aloe vera juice that does not contain significant amounts of aloin is used as a digestive healer. Manufacturers commonly remove aloin in processing due to the FDA ruling.
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Culinary uses

Aloe is also used as a food substance. Some molecular gastronomists have begun to take advantage of its gelling properties. Perhaps the most notable among these is Chef Quique Dacosta's "Oysters Guggenheim," created at El Poblet in Spain.[70]
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Side Effects and Cautions

Use of topical aloe vera is not associated with significant side effects. A 2-year National Toxicology Program (NTP) study on oral consumption of non-decolorized whole leaf extract of aloe vera found clear evidence of carcinogenic activity in male and female rats, based on tumors of the large intestine. According to the NTP, from what is known right now there is nothing that would lead them to believe that these findings are not relevant to humans. However, more information, including how individuals use different types of aloe vera products, is needed to determine the potential risks to humans. Abdominal cramps and diarrhea have been reported with oral use of aloe vera. Diarrhea, caused by the laxative effect of oral aloe vera, can decrease the absorption of many drugs. People with diabetes who use glucose-lowering medication should be cautious if also taking aloe by mouth because preliminary studies suggest aloe may lower blood glucose levels. There have been a few case reports of acute hepatitis from aloe vera taken orally. However, the evidence is not definitive.[71]
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Biologically active compounds

Aloe vera leaves contain a range of biologically active compounds, the best-studied being acetylated mannans, polymannans, anthraquinone C-glycosides, anthrones and anthraquinones, and various lectins.[4][6][7]

Frangula alnus Miller (Alder Buckthorn, Black Dogwood)

Similar species Beware Amelanchier lamarckii (Juneberry) which can be naturalised in the same habitat in southern England.

Flowers and fruits of Buckthorns are axillary, forming a characteristic cluster a little way back from the tip of the branch whereas Juneberry has loose terminal raceme.

Vegetative specimens can be distinguished by the short petioles (less than 1cm) of Alder Buckthorn compared to the longer ones (up to 2cm) of Juneberry. Furthermore, the leaf edge is completely smooth in Alder Buckthorn whereas it is denticulate in Juneberry.

Alfalfa

This article is about plant and flower. For the actor and character of the series Our Gang, see Carl "Alfalfa" Switzer. For the community in Central Oregon, see Alfalfa, Oregon.Alfalfa

Medicago sativa
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Eudicots
(unranked): Rosids
Order: Fabales
Family: Fabaceae
Genus: Medicago
Species: M. sativa
Binomial name
Medicago sativa
L.[1]
Subspecies

Medicago sativa subsp. ambigua (Trautv.) Tutin
Medicago sativa subsp. microcarpa Urban
Medicago sativa subsp. sativa L.
Medicago sativa subsp. varia (T. Martyn) Arcang.


Alfalfa ( /ælˈfælfə/; Medicago sativa) is a flowering plant in the pea family Fabaceae cultivated as an important forage crop in the US, Canada, Argentina, France, Australia, the Middle East, South Africa, and many other countries. It is known as lucerne in the UK, France, Australia, South Africa and New Zealand, and known as lucerne grass in south Asia. It superficially resembles clover, with clusters of small purple flowers.Ecology

Alfalfa is a perennial forage legume which normally lives 4–8 years, but can live more than twenty years, depending on variety and climate.[2] The plant grows to a height of up to 1 metre (3 ft), and has a deep root system, sometimes stretching more than 15 metres (49 ft).[2] This makes it very resilient, especially to droughts.[2] It has a tetraploid genome.[3]

Alfalfa is a small seeded crop, and has a slowly-growing seedling, but after several months of establishment, forms a tough 'crown' at the top of the root system. This crown contains many shoot buds that enables alfalfa to re-grow many times after being grazed or harvested.

This plant exhibits autotoxicity, which means it is difficult for alfalfa seed to grow in existing stands of alfalfa.[4] Therefore, it is recommended that alfalfa fields be rotated with other species (for example, corn or wheat) before reseeding.[5]
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Culture

Alfalfa is widely grown throughout the world as forage for cattle, and is most often harvested as hay, but can also be made into silage, grazed, or fed as greenchop.[6] Alfalfa usually has the highest feeding value of all common hay crops. It is used less frequently as pasture.[5] When grown on soils where it is well-adapted, alfalfa is often the highest yielding forage plant, but its primary benefit is the combination of high yield per hectare and high nutritional quality.[7]

Its primary use is as feed for high producing dairy cows—because of its high protein content and highly digestible fiber—and secondarily for beef cattle, horses, sheep, and goats.[8][9] Humans also eat alfalfa sprouts in salads and sandwiches.[10][11] Dehydrated alfalfa leaf is commercially available as a dietary supplement in several forms, such as tablets, powders and tea.[12] Alfalfa is believed by some to be a galactagogue, a substance that induces lactation.[13] Alfalfa can cause bloating in livestock, care must be taken with livestock grazing on alfalfa because of its high bloat hazard.[14]

Like other legumes, its root nodules contain bacteria, Sinorhizobium meliloti, with the ability to fix nitrogen, producing a high-protein feed regardless of available nitrogen in the soil.[15] Its nitrogen-fixing abilities (which increases soil nitrogen) and its use as an animal feed greatly improved agricultural efficiency.[16][17]

Alfalfa can be sown in spring or fall, and does best on well-drained soils with a neutral pH of 6.8 – 7.5.[18][19] Alfalfa requires sustained levels of potassium and phosphorus to grow well.[20] It is moderately sensitive to salt levels in both the soil and in irrigation water, although it continues to be grown in the arid southwestern United States, where salinity is an emerging issue.[21][22][23] Soils low in fertility should be fertilized with manure or a chemical fertilizer, but correction of pH is particularly important.[24] Usually a seeding rate of 13 – 20 kg/hectare (12 – 25 lb/acre) is recommended, with differences based upon region, soil type, and seeding method.[25] A nurse crop is sometimes used, particularly for spring plantings, to reduce weed problems and soil erosion, but can lead to competition for light, water and nutrients.[26]

In most climates, alfalfa is cut three to four times a year, but it can be harvested up to 12 times per year in Arizona and southern California.[27][28] Total yields are typically around 8 tonnes per hectare (4 short tons per acre) in temperate environments, but yields have been recorded up to 20 t/ha (16 short tons per acre).[28] Yields vary with region, weather, and the crop's stage of maturity when cut. Later cuttings improve yield, but with reduced nutritional content.[29]

Alfalfa leafcutter bee, Megachile rotundata, a pollinator on alfalfa flower

Alfalfa is considered an insectary due to the large number of insects it attracts.[30] Some pests, such as alfalfa weevil, aphids, armyworms, and the potato leafhopper, can reduce alfalfa yields dramatically, particularly with the second cutting when weather is warmest.[31] Chemical controls are sometimes used to prevent this.[31] Alfalfa is also susceptible to root rots, including Phytophthora, Rhizoctonia, and Texas root rot.[32][33][34]
Main article: List of alfalfa diseases
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Harvesting

Alfalfa hay on the way to Clayton, New Mexico, circa 1915.

Cylindrical bales of alfalfa

When alfalfa is to be used as hay, it is usually cut and baled.[35] Loose haystacks are still used in some areas, but bales are easier for use in transportation, storage and feed.[36] Ideally, the first cutting should be taken at the bud stage, and the subsequent cuttings just as the field is beginning to flower, or one tenth bloom for the reason that carbohydrates are at their highest.[37] When using farm equipment rather than hand-harvesting, a swather cuts the alfalfa and arranges it in windrows.[38] In areas where the alfalfa does not immediately dry out on its own, a machine known as a mower-conditioner is used to cut the hay.[35] The mower-conditioner has a set of rollers or flails that crimp and break the stems as they pass through the mower, making the alfalfa dry faster.[39] After the alfalfa has dried, a tractor pulling a baler collects the hay into bales.

There are several types of bales commonly used for alfalfa. For small animals and individual horses, the alfalfa is baled into small two-string bales, commonly named by the strands of string used to wrap it. Other bale sizes are three-string, and so on up to half-ton (six-string) "square" bales – actually rectangular, and typically about 40 x 45 x 100 cm (14 in x 18 in x 38 in).[3] Small square bales weigh from 25 – 30 kg (50 – 70 pounds) depending on moisture, and can be easily hand separated into "flakes". Cattle ranches use large round bales, typically 1.4 to 1.8 m (4 to 6 feet) in diameter and weighing from 500 to 1,000 kg, (1000 to 2000 lbs). These bales can be placed in stable stacks or in large feeders for herds of horses, or unrolled on the ground for large herds of cattle.[3] The bales can be loaded and stacked with a tractor using a spike, known as a bale spear, that pierces the center of the bale,[40] or they can be handled with a grapple (claw) on the tractor's front-end loader. A more recent innovation is large "square" bales, roughly the same proportions as the small squares, but much larger. The bale size was set so stacks would fit perfectly on a large flatbed truck. These are more common in the western United States.

When used as feed for dairy cattle, alfalfa is often made into haylage by a process known as ensiling.[8] Rather than drying it to make dry hay, the alfalfa is chopped finely and fermented in silos, trenches, or bags, anywhere the oxygen supply can be limited to promote fermentation.[41] The anaerobic fermentation of alfalfa allows it to retain high nutrient levels similar to those of fresh forage, and is also more palatable to dairy cattle than dry hay.[42] In many cases, alfalfa silage is inoculated with different strains of microorganisms to improve the fermentation quality and aerobic stability of the silage.[43]
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Worldwide production

Worldwide alfalfa production

Alfalfa is the most cultivated forage legume in the world.[citation needed] Worldwide production was around 436 million tons in 2006.[44][page needed] The US is the largest alfalfa producer in the world, but considerable production is found in Canada, Argentina (primarily grazed), Southern Europe, Australia, South Africa, and the Middle East.[citation needed].

Within the United States, the leading alfalfa growing states are California, South Dakota, and Wisconsin. The upper Midwestern states account for about 50% of US production, the Northeastern states 10%, the Western states 40%, and the Southeastern states almost none. Alfalfa can be grown in the southern US states, but often leaf and root diseases and poor soils are limitations. Alfalfa has a wide range of adaptation, and can be grown from very cold northern plains to high mountain valleys, from rich temperate agricultural regions to Mediterranean climates and searing hot deserts.[citation needed]
[edit]
Alfalfa and bees

Alfalfa seed production requires the presence of pollinators when the fields of alfalfa are in bloom.[3] Alfalfa pollination is somewhat problematic, however, because Western honey bees, the most commonly used pollinator, are not suitable for this purpose; the pollen-carrying keel of the alfalfa flower trips and strikes pollinating bees on the head, which helps transfer the pollen to the foraging bee.[3] Western honey bees, however, do not like being struck in the head repeatedly and learn to defeat this action by drawing nectar from the side of the flower. The bees thus collect the nectar, but carry no pollen and so do not pollinate the next flower they visit.[45] Because older, experienced bees do not pollinate alfalfa well, most pollination is accomplished by young bees that have not yet learned the trick of robbing the flower without tripping the head-knocking keel. When western honey bees are used to pollinate alfalfa, the beekeeper stocks the field at a very high rate to maximize the number of young bees.[45] Western honey bee colonies may suffer protein stress when working alfalfa only, due to shortage of one of the amino-acids comprising the pollen protein, iso-leucine. Today, the alfalfa leafcutter bee is increasingly used to circumvent these problems.[46] As a solitary but gregarious bee species, it does not build colonies or store honey, but is a very efficient pollinator of alfalfa flowers.[46] Nesting is in individual tunnels in wooden or plastic material, supplied by the alfalfa seed growers.[45] The leafcutter bees are used in the Pacific Northwest, while western honeybees dominate in California alfalfa seed production.[45]

A smaller amount of alfalfa produced for seed is pollinated by the alkali bee, mostly in the northwestern United States. It is cultured in special beds near the fields. These bees also have their own problems. They are not portable like honey bees, and when fields are planted in new areas, the bees take several seasons to build up.[45] Honey bees are still trucked to many of the fields at bloom time.
[edit]
Varieties

Small square bales of alfalfa

Considerable research and development has been done with this important plant. Older cultivars such as 'Vernal' have been the standard for years, but many better public and private varieties better adapted to particular climates are available.[47] Private companies release many new varieties each year in the US.[48]

Most varieties go dormant in the fall, with reduced growth in response to low temperatures and shorter days.[48] 'Nondormant' varieties that grow through the winter are planted in long-seasoned environments such as Mexico, Arizona, and Southern California, whereas 'dormant' varieties are planted in the Upper Midwest, Canada, and the Northeast.[48] 'Nondormant' varieties can be higher yielding, but they are susceptible to winter-kill in cold climates and have poorer persistence.[48]

Most alfalfa cultivars contain genetic material from sickle medick (M. falcata), a wild variety of alfalfa that naturally hybridizes with M. sativa to produce sand lucerne (M. sativa ssp. varia). This species may bear either the purple flowers of alfalfa or the yellow of sickle medick, and is so called for its ready growth in sandy soil.[49]

Watering an alfalfa field

Most of the improvements in alfalfa over the last decades have consisted of better disease resistance on poorly drained soils in wet years, better ability to overwinter in cold climates, and the production of more leaves. Multileaf alfalfa varieties have more than three leaflets per leaf, giving them greater nutritional content by weight because there is more leafy matter for the same amount of stem[citation needed].

Wisconsin and California and many other states publish alfalfa variety trial data. A complete listing of state variety testing data is provided by the North American Alfalfa Improvement Conference (NAAIC) State Listing as well as additional detailed alfalfa genetic and variety data published by NAAIC.
[edit]
Genetically modified alfalfa

Roundup Ready alfalfa, a genetically modified variety was released by Forage Genetics Int'l in 2005. This was developed through the insertion of a gene owned by Monsanto Company that confers resistance to glyphosate, a broad-spectrum herbicide, also known as Roundup. Although most grassy and broadleaf plants, including ordinary alfalfa, are killed by Roundup, growers can spray fields of Roundup Ready alfalfa with the glyphosate herbicide and kill the weeds without harming the alfalfa crop.
[edit]
Legal issues with Roundup Ready Alfalfa in the US

Roundup Ready alfalfa was sold in the United States from 2005–2007 with more than 300,000 acres (120,000 ha) planted out of 21,000,000 acres (8,500,000 ha). After a hiatus of nearly 4 years of legal and regulatory troubles, planting resumed in February 2011. In 2006, the Center for Food Safety and Geertson Seed Farm sued USDA-APHIS to stop farmers from growing Roundup Ready Alfalfa. Their primary claim was 1) the possibility of increased spread of glyphosate-resistant weeds, and 2) the possibility that gene flow from Roundup Ready alfalfa would harm organic or conventional growers. In early 2007, The 9th Circuit Court in San Francisco decided in favor of the plaintiffs, forcing USDA-APHIS to conduct an Environmental Impact Study—this study took four years and was completed in December 2010. At the same time, the California Northern District Court also issued an injunction order prohibiting farmers from planting Roundup Ready alfalfa until the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) completed its EIS study. As a result, the USDA put a hold on any further planting of Roundup Ready alfalfa from 2007–2011.

Monsanto subsequently sued Geertson Seed, a case that went to the US Supreme Court in 2010, and decided in favor of Monsanto (Monsanto Co. v. Geertson Seed Farms[50]).[51] In June 2010, the US Supreme Court issued a ruling on this matter in favor of Monsanto, and determined that the 9th Circuit should not have prohibited further plantings, but should have allowed USDA-APHIS to determine the safety of the technology. Both sides claimed victory.[52]

The final Environmental Impact Statement was issued by APHIS in December 2010, which found Roundup Ready Alfalfa to be safe for the environment. After a comment period, the crop was completely deregulated in January 2011 and planting resumed in February 2011. APHIS issued its lengthy EIS document and considered the gene flow issue, impacts on organic growers, the issue of Roundup-resistant weeds and host of other questions. In the end, it was determined that Roundup-ready did not present a risk to the environment (APHIS). A new lawsuit by the Center for Food Safety (and others) to stop further development of Roundup Ready alfalfa was filed against USDA-APHIS in March 2011.
[edit]
History

A book on agriculture by the Roman writer Palladius, dated 4th century AD, includes a section about alfalfa. Palladius says: "One sow-down lasts ten years. The crop may be cut four or six times a year.... An [Roman] acre of it is abundantly sufficient for three horses all the year.... It may be given to cattle, but new provender is at first to be administered very sparingly, because it bloats up the cattle."[53] Palladius called alfalfa "medica", a name that referred to the Medes, a people who lived in ancient Iran. The ancient Greeks and Romans believed, very probably correctly, that the alfalfa plant came from the Medes land (in today's Iran). (The ancient Greeks and Romans also used the name medica to mean a citron fruit, once again because it was believed to have come from the Medes land). The ancient Roman name medica is the root of the modern scientific name for the alfalfa genus, Medicago. Despite the report in Palladius and in some other Roman and ancient Greek writers, there is little evidence that alfalfa was in widespread use in the Mediterranean region in those days.

The 13th century Arabic dictionary Lisan al-Arab says that "al-fiṣfiṣa" (alfalfa) is cultivated as an animal feed and consumed in both fresh and dried form.[54] In medieval Spain, the Arabic name "al-fisfisa" mutated into the Spanish name "alfalfa".[55] Alfalfa in medieval Spain was cultivated as fodder for horses and had a reputation as the best fodder for them. In the 16th century, Spanish colonizers introduced alfalfa to the Americas as fodder for their horses.[56] The English name "alfalfa" dates from mid-19th century far-west USA, from the Spanish. Alfalfa seeds were imported to California from Chile in the 1850s. That was the beginning of a rapid and extensive introduction of the crop over the western US States.[57] In the North American colonies of the eastern US back in the 18th century it was called "lucerne" and lots of trials at growing it were made, but generally without getting satisfactory results. Relatively very little alfalfa is grown in the eastern US still today. Today in France and Germany, and also in Britain and Australia, alfalfa is usually called "lucerne" | "luzerne", a word that arose in French in the 16th century. Since North and South America now produce a large part of the world's output, the word "alfalfa" has been slowly entering into other languages besides English and Spanish.
[edit]
Phytoestrogens in alfalfa

Alfalfa, like other leguminous crops, is a known source of phytoestrogens,[58] including spinosterol.[59] Grazing on alfalfa has been suspected as a cause of reduced fertility in sheep.
[edit]
Medical uses

Alfalfa has been used as an herbal medicine for over 1,500 years.[citation needed] Alfalfa is high in protein, calcium, plus other minerals, vitamins in the B group, vitamin C, vitamin E, and vitamin K.[60][61]

In early Chinese medicines, physicians used young alfalfa leaves to treat disorders related to the digestive tract and the kidneys.[citation needed] In Ayurvedic medicine, physicians used the leaves for treating poor digestion. They made a cooling poultice from the seeds for boils. At the time, alfalfa was also believed to be beneficial to people suffering from arthritis and water retention.[citation needed]

African potato

There is a resurgent interest world wide in the use of natural remedies to treat all sorts of ailments.

One of the plants used traditionally in African medicine is Hypoxis hemerocallidea also known as star flower, African potato or Inkomfe in Zulu. It is a tuberous perennial with strap-like leaves and yellow star shaped leaves. The tuberous rootstock or corm is the part mostly used for it’s medicinal properties. It is dark brown to black on the outside and yellow on the inside when freshly cut.Infusions of the corm are used traditionally as emetics (a compound which induces vomiting) to treat dizziness, bladder disorders and insanity (Pujol, J. 1990 and Hutchings, A. 1996). An infusion is prepared when the plant part is macerated (finely chopped up) and soaked in cold or boiling water to extract the active compounds. The water extract (infusion) is usually taken orally.Decoctions have been given to weak children as a tonic. Decoctions are prepared by boiling plant parts in water and then drinking the extract. The stems and leaves are mixed with other ingredients to treat benign prostatic hypertrophy (non-malignant enlargement of the prostate gland in men). Other traditional medicinal uses of this plant include the treatment of testicular tumours and urinary infection. Anti-cancer, anti-HIV and anti-inflammatory properties of this medicinal plant have shown promising results in clinical trials (Albrecht, C. F. 1996). The juice is reported to be applied to burns (Watt, J. M. & Breyer-Brandwijk, M.G. 1962).

Cocklebur

Cockleburs (Xanthium) are a genus of flowering plants in the family Asteraceae, native to the Americas and eastern Asia.Growth

They are coarse, herbaceous annual plants growing to 19.69-47.24 in (1.5 to 4 ft) tall. The leaves are spirally arranged, with a deeply toothed margin. Some species, notably X. spinosum, are also very thorny with long, slender spines at the leaf bases.

The flowers are of two types; One, in short terminal branches, produces only pollen. The other, in clusters in the axils of the leaves, produces seed.

Unlike many other members of the family Asteraceae, whose seeds are airborne with a plume of silky hairs resembling miniature parachutes, cocklebur seeds are produced in a hard, spiny, globose or oval double-chambered, single-seeded bur .32-.79 in long. It is covered with stiff, hooked spines, which sticks to fur and clothing and can be quite difficult to extract. These remarkable burred seeds have allowed this plant to be carried all over the world by unsuspecting travelers. This plant reproduces only by means of its seed.
[edit]
Characteristics

Cockleburs are short-day plants, meaning they only initiate flowering when the days are getting shorter in the late summer and fall, typically from July to October in the northern hemisphere. They can also flower in the tropics where the daylength is constant.

Seedling struggling to take root among the sand dunes of West Texas

Closeup of fruit, Wilbur Hot Spring, Colusa County, California

Xanthium strumarium in Pine Creek Canyon, Red Rock Canyon, southern Nevada
[edit]
Selected species

The number of species is disputed between different authors, with some recognising as few as three species in the genus.
Xanthium ambrosioides
Xanthium brasilicum
Xanthium commune
Xanthium echinatum - Stinking Cocklebur
Xanthium inaequilaterum
Xanthium inflexum
Xanthium mongolicum
Xanthium occidentale - Noogoora Burr
Xanthium sibiricum - in Chinese (Chinese: 蒼耳; pinyin: chang-er)
Xanthium speciosum
Xanthium spinosum - Spiny Cocklebur, Burreed, Bathurst Burr. South and Central America.
Xanthium strumarium - Clotbur, Rough Cocklebur, Large Cocklebur, Common Cocklebur. North America, extensively naturalized elsewhere. Syn. X. canadense, X. chinense, , X. glabratum
[edit]
Dangers and uses

The Common Cocklebur (X. strumarium) is a native of North America where in the past the (now extinct) Carolina Parakeet fed on the seeds. It has become an invasive species worldwide. It invades agricultural lands and can be poisonous to livestock, including horses, cattle, and sheep. Some domestic animals will avoid consuming the plant if other forage is present, but less discriminating animals, such as pigs, will consume the plants and then sicken and die. The seedlings and seeds are the most toxic parts of the plants. Symptoms usually occur within a few hours, producing unsteadiness and weakness, depression, nausea and vomiting, twisting of the neck muscles, rapid and weak pulse, difficulty breathing, and eventually death.

The plant also has been used for making yellow dye, hence the name of the genus (Greek xanthos = 'yellow'). The many species of this plant, which can be found in many areas, may actually be varieties of two or three species. The seed oil is edible to humans.

Asian species of Xanthium also known as Cang Er Zi in Traditional Chinese Medicine. According to some studies, an active ingredient in Xanthium exhibits significant selective modulation of superoxide anion generation by human neutrophils induced by formyl-L-methionyl-L-leucyl-L-phenylalanine, with an IC50 value of 1.72 mcg/mL.[1]

This plant is a beneficial weed, repelling army worms and other pests from nearby domesticated plants.
[edit]
See also
List of beneficial weeds
List of companion plants
List of plants poisonous to equines
[edit]
References
^ Lee, CL; Huang, PC; Hsieh, PW; Hwang, TL; Hou, YY; Chang, FR; Wu, YC (2008). "(-)-Xanthienopyran, a new inhibitor of superoxide anion generation by activated neutrophils, and further constituents of the seeds of Xanthium strumarium". Planta medica 74 (10): 1276–9. doi:10.1055/s-2008-1081295. PMID 18622908.
Everitt, J.H.; Lonard, R.L., Little, C.R. (2007). Weeds in South Texas and Northern Mexico. Lubbock: Texas Tech University Press. ISBN 0-89672-614-2
Robbins, W.W., M.K. Bellue and W.S. Ball. Weeds of California. State Department of Agriculture, Sacramento, California (1941).

Verbascum thapsus

Verbascum thapsus (Great or Common Mullein) is a species of mullein native to Europe, northern Africa and Asia, and introduced in the Americas and Australia.

It is a hairy biennial plant that can grow to 2 m or more tall. Its small yellow flowers are densely grouped on a tall stem, which bolts from a large rosette of leaves. It grows in a wide variety of habitats, but prefers well-lit disturbed soils, where it can appear soon after the ground receives light, from long-lived seeds that persist in the soil seed bank. It is a common weedy plant that spreads by prolifically producing seeds, but rarely becomes aggressively invasive, since its seed require open ground to germinate. It is a very minor problem for most agricultural crops, since it is not a very competitive species, being intolerant of shade from other plants and unable to survive tilling. It also hosts many insects, some of which can be harmful to other plants. Although individuals are easy to remove by hand, populations are difficult to eliminate permanently.

It is widely used for herbal remedies with emollient and astringent properties. It is especially recommended for coughs and related problems, but also used in topical applications against a variety of skin problems. The plant was also used to make dyes and torches.Description

A stemless rosette in Hawaii

Verbascum thapsus is a dicotyledonous plant that produces a rosette of leaves in its first year of growth.[1][2] The leaves are large, up to 50 cm long. The second year plants normally produce a single unbranched stem usually 1–2 m tall. In the East of its range in China, it is, however, only reported to grow up to 1.5 m tall.[3] The tall pole-like stems end in a dense spike of flowers[1] that can occupy up to half the stem length. All parts of the plants are covered with star-shaped trichomes.[3][4] This cover is particularly thick on the leaves, giving them a silvery appearance. The species' chromosome number is 2n = 36.[5]

On flowering plants the leaves are alternately arranged up the stem. They are thick and decurrent, with much variation in leaf shape between the upper and lower leaves on the stem, ranging from oblong to oblanceolate, and reaching sizes up to 50 cm long and 14 cm across (19 inches long and 5 inches wide).[6][7] They become smaller higher up the stem,[1][2] and less strongly decurrent down the stem.[1] The flowering stem is solid and 2–2.5 cm (nearly an inch) across, and occasionally branched just below the inflorescence,[2] usually following damage.[8] After flowering and seed release the stem and fruits usually persist in winter,[9] drying into dark brown, stiff structures of densely packed, ovoid-shaped and dry seed capsules. The dried stems may persist into the following spring or even the next summer. The plant produces a shallow taproot.[7]

A closeup of the flowers

Flowers are pentamerous with (usually) five stamen, a 5-lobed calyx tube and a 5-petalled corolla, the latter bright yellow and an 1.5–3 cm (0.5–1 inch) wide. The flowers are almost sessile, with very short pedicels (2 mm, 0.08 in). The five stamens are of two types, with the three upper stamens being shorter, their filaments covered by yellow or whitish hairs, and having smaller anthers, while the lower two stamens have glabrous filaments and larger anthers.[4][note 1] The plant produces small ovoid (6 mm, 0.24 in) capsules that split open by way of two valves, each capsule containing large numbers of minute brown seeds less than a millimetre (0.04 in)[10] in size, marked with longitudinal ridges. A white-flowered form, V. thapsus f. candicans, is known to occur.[11] Flowering lasts for up to three months from early to late summer (June to August in northern Europe),[2] with flowering starting at the bottom of the spike and progressing irregularly upward; each flower opens for part of a day and only a few open at the same time around the stem.[9]
[edit]
Taxonomy

For the purpose of botanical nomenclature, Verbascum thapsus was first described by Carolus Linnaeus in his 1753 Species Plantarum. The specific epithet thapsus had been first used by Theophrastus (as θάψος, "thapsos")[12] for an unspecified herb from the Ancient Greek settlement of Thapsos, near modern Syracuse, Sicily,[12][13] though it is often assimilated to the ancient Tunisian city of Thapsus.[14]

At the time, no type specimen was specified, as the practice only arose later, in the 19th century. When a lectotype (type selected amongst original material) was designated, it was assigned to specimen 242.1 of Linnaeus' herbarium, the only V. thapsus specimen.[note 2] The species had previously been designated as type species for Verbascum.[16] European plants exhibit considerable phenotypical variation,[17] which has led to the plant acquiring many synonyms over the years.[15][18] Introduced American populations show much less variation.[17]

The taxonomy of Verbascum has not undergone any significant revision since Svanve Mürbeck's monographies in the 30s, with the exception of the work of Arthur Huber-Morath, who used informal group in organizing the genus for the floras of Iran and Turkey to account for many intermediate species. Since Huber-Morath's groups are not taxonomical, Mürbeck's treatment is the most current one available, as no study has yet sought to apply genetic or molecular data extensively to the genus. In Mürbeck's classification, V. thapsus is placed in section Bothrospermae subsect. Fasciculata (or sect. Verbascum subsect. Verbascum depending on nomenclatural choices) alongside species such as Verbascum nigrum (black or dark mullein), Verbascum lychnitis (white mullein) and Verbascum sinuatum (wavy-leaved mullein).[19][20]
[edit]
Subspecies and hybrids

There are three usually recognized subspecies:
V. thapsus subsp. thapsus; type, widespread.
V. thapsus subsp. crassifolium (Lam.) Murb.; Mediterranean region and to 2000 metres in southwestern Austria.[21] (syn. subsp. montanum (Scrad.) Bonnier & Layens)
V. thapsus subsp. giganteum (Willk.) Nyman; Spain, endemic.

In all subspecies but the type, the lower stamens are also hairy.[22] In subsp. crassifolium, the hairiness is less dense and often absent from the upper part of the anthers, while lower leaves are hardly decurrent and have longer petioles.[21] In subsp. giganteum, the hairs are densely white tomentose, and lower leaves strongly decurrent. Subsp. crassifolium also differs from the type in having slightly larger flowers, which measure 15–30 mm wide, whereas in the type they are 12–20 mm in diameter.[21] Both subsp. giganteum and subsp. crassifolium were originally described as species.[1] Due to its morphological variation, V. thapsus has had a great many subspecies described. A recent revision lead its author to maintain V. giganteum but sink V. crassifolium into synonymy.[20]
Hybrids of Verbascum thapsus[5][23]Hybrid name Other parent species Notes
V. × duernsteinense Teyber V. speciosum
V. × godronii Boreau V. pulverulentum
V. × kerneri Fritsch V. phlomoides
V. × lemaitrei Boreau V. virgatum
V. × pterocaulon Franch. V. blattaria
V. × thapsi L. V. lychnitis syn. V. × spurium W.D.J.Koch,
may be a nomen ambiguum[24]
V. × semialbum Chaub. V. nigrum
none V. pyramidatum


The plant is also parent to several hybrids (see table). Of these, the most common is V. × semialbum Chaub. (× V. nigrum).[5] All occur in Eurasia,[5] and three, V. × kerneri Fritsch, V. × pterocaulon Franch. and V. × thapsi L. (syn. V. × spurium W.D.J.Koch), have also been reported in North America.[23][25]
[edit]
Common names

V. thapsus is known by a variety of names. European reference books call it "Great mullein".[26][27][28] In North America, "Common mullein" is used [29][30] while western United States residents commonly refer to mullein as "Cowboy Toilet Paper".[31][32]

In the 19th century it had well over 40 different common names in English alone. Some of the more whimsical ones included "Hig candlewick", "Bullicks lungwort", "Adams-rod", "Hare's-beard" and "Ice-leaf".[33] Vernacular names include innumerable references to the plant's hairiness: "Woolly", "Velvet" or "Blanket Mullein",[28][34] "Beggar's", "Moses'", "Poor Man's", "Our Lady's" or "Old Man's Blanket",[27][30][35] and "Feltwort", and so on ("Flannel" is another common generic name).

In the midwestern United States, including Texas, Colorado, New Mexico and Arizona, Mullein is commonly known as Cowboy Toilet Paper. Some names refer to the plant's size and shape: "Shepherd's Club(s)" or "Staff", "Aaron's Rod" (a name it shares with a number of other plants with tall, yellow inflorescences), and a plethora of other "X's Staff" and "X's Rod".[27][30][36] The name "Velvet" or "Mullein Dock" is also recorded, where "dock" is a British name applied to any broad-leaved plant.[37]
[edit]
Distribution and habitat

Verbascum thapsus has a wide native range including Europe, northern Africa and Asia, from the Azores and Canary Islands east to western China, north to the British Isles, Scandinavia and Siberia, and south to the Himalayas.[3][38][39] In northern Europe, it grows from sea level up to 1,850 m altitude,[2] while in China it grows at 1,400–3,200 m altitude.[3]

It has been introduced throughout the temperate world, and is established as a weed in Australia, New Zealand, tropical Asia, La Réunion, North America, Hawaii, Chile, Hispaniola and Argentina.[39][40][41][42] It has also been reported in Japan.[43]

In the United States it was imported very early in the 18th[note 3] century and cultivated for its medicinal and piscicide property. By 1818, it had begun spreading so much that Amos Eaton thought it was a native plant.[note 4][7][44] In 1839 it was already reported in Michigan and in 1876, in California.[7] It is now found commonly in all the states.[45] In Canada, it is most common in the Maritime Provinces as well as southern Quebec, Ontario and British Columbia, with scattered populations in between.[17][46]

Great Mullein most frequently grows as a colonist of bare and disturbed soil, usually on sandy or chalky ones.[5] It grows best in dry, sandy or gravelly soils, although it can grow in a variety of habitats, including banksides, meadows, roadsides, forest clearings and pastures. This ability to grow in a wide range of habitats has been linked to strong phenotype variation rather than adaptation capacities.[47]
[edit]
Ecology

V. thapsus grows best where there is little competition

Great Mullein is a biennial and generally requires winter dormancy before it can flower.[8] This dormancy is linked to starch degradation activated by low temperatures in the root, and gibberellin application bypasses this requirement.[48] Seeds germinates almost solely in bare soil, at temperatures between 10 °C and 40 °C.[8] While they can germinate in total darkness if proper conditions are present (tests give a 35% germination rate under ideal conditions), in the wild, they in practice only do so when exposed to light, or very close to the soil surface, which explains the plant's habitat preferences. While it can also grow in areas where some vegetation already exists, growth of the rosettes on bare soil is four to seven times more rapid.[8]

Seeds germinate in spring and summer. Those that germinate in autumn produce plants that overwinter if they are large enough, while rosettes less than 15 cm (5.9 in) across die in winter. After flowering the entire plant usually dies at the end of its second year,[8] but some individuals, especially in the northern parts of the range, require a longer growth period and flower in their third year. Under better growing conditions, some individuals flower in the first year.[49] Triennial individuals have been found to produce fewer seeds than biennial and annual ones. While year of flowering and size are linked to the environment, most other characteristics appear to be genetic.[50]

A given flower is open only for a single day, opening before dawn and closing in the afternoon.[17] Flowers are self-fecundating and protogynous (with female parts maturing first),[17] and will self-pollinate if they have not been pollinated by insects during the day. While many insects visit the flowers, only some bees actually accomplish pollination. V. thapsus' flowering period lasts from June to August in most of its range, extending to September or October in warmer climates.[7][8][10] Visitors include halictid bees and hoverflies.[9] The hair on lower stamens may serve to provide footholds for visitors.[17]

The fruit of great mullein contains large numbers of minute seed.

The seeds maintain their germinative powers for decades, up to a hundred years, according to some studies.[51] Because of this, and because the plant is an extremely prolific seed bearer (each plant produces hundreds of capsules, each containing up to 700+ seeds,[17] with a total up to 180,000[7][8] or 240,000[10] seeds), it remains in the soil seed bank for extended periods of time, and can sprout from apparently bare ground,[8] or shortly after forest fires long after previous plants have died.[10] Its population pattern typically consists of an ephemeral adult population followed by a long period of dormancy as seeds.[17] Great Mullein rarely establishes on new grounds without human intervention because its seeds do not disperse very far. Seed dispersion requires the stem to be moved by wind or animal movement; 75% of the seeds fall within 1 m of the parent plant, and 93% fall within 5 m.[8]

Megachilidae bees of the genus Anthidium use the hair (amongst that of various woolly plants) in making their nests.[52] The seeds are generally too small for birds to feed on,[9] although the American Goldfinch has been reported to consume them.[53] Other bird species have been reported to consume the leaves (Hawaiian Goose)[54] or flowers (Palila),[55] or to use the plant as a source when foraging for insects (White-headed Woodpecker).[56]
[edit]
Agricultural impacts and control

Because it cannot compete with established plants, Great Mullein is no longer considered a serious agricultural weed and is easily crowded out in cultivation,[17] except in areas where vegetation is sparse to begin with, such as Californian semi-desertic areas of the Eastern Sierra Nevada. In such ecological contexts, it crowds out native herbs and grasses; its tendency to appear after forest fires also disturbs the normal ecological succession.[8][10] Although not an agricultural threat, its presence can be very difficult to completely eradicate, and is especially problematic in overgrazed pastures.[7][8][10] The species is legally listed as a noxious weed in the American state of Colorado (Class C)[57] and Hawaii,[58] and the Australian state of Victoria (regionally prohibited in the West Gippsland region, and regionally controlled in several others).[59]

Despite not being an agricultural weed in itself, it hosts a number of insects and diseases, including both pests and beneficial insects.[60] It is also a potential reservoir of the cucumber mosaic virus, Erysiphum cichoraceum (the cucurbit powdery mildew) and Texas root rot.[17][61] A study found V. thapsus hosts insects from 29 different families. Most of the pests found were western flower thrips (Frankliniella occidentalis), Lygus species such as the tarnished plant bug (L. lineolaris), and various spider mites from the family Tetranychidae. These make the plant a potential reservoir for overwintering pests.[60]

Other insects commonly found on Great Mullein feed exclusively on Verbascum species in general or V. thapsus in particular. They include mullein thrips (Haplothrips verbasci),[60] Gymnaetron tetrum (whose larva consume the seeds) and the Mullein Moth (Cucullia verbasci).[7] Useful insects are also hosted by Great Mullein, including predatory mites of the Galendromus, Typhlodromus and Amblyseius genera, the minute pirate bug Orius tristicolor[60] and the mullein plant bug (Campylomma verbasci).[62] The plant's ability to host both pests and beneficials makes it potentially useful to maintain stable populations of insects used for biological control in other cultures, like Campylomma verbasci and Dicyphus hesperus (Miridae), a predator of whiteflies.[63][64] A number of pest Lepidoptera species, including the Stalk Borer (Papaipema nebris) and Gray Hairstreak (Strymon melinus), also use V. thapsus as a host plant.[65]

Because of the plant's hairiness, Verbascum thapsus is resistant to grazing and contact herbicides.

Control of the plant, when desired, is best managed via mechanical means, such as hand pulling and hoeing, preferably followed by sowing of native plants. Animals rarely graze it because of its irritating hairs, and liquid herbicides require surfactants to be effective, as the hair causes water to roll off the plant, much like the lotus effect. Burning is ineffective, as it only creates new bare areas for seedlings to occupy.[7][8][10] G. tetrum and Cucullia verbasci usually have little effect on V. thapsus populations as a whole.[10] Goats and chickens have also been proposed to control Mullein.[8] Effective (when used with a surfactant) contact herbicides include glyphosate,[7][10] triclopyr[7] and sulfurometuron-methyl.[10] Ground herbicides, like tebuthiuron, are also effective, but recreate bare ground and require repeated application to prevent regrowth.[8]
[edit]
Uses

Great Mullein has been used since ancient times as a remedy for skin, throat and breathing ailments. It has long had a medicinal reputation, especially as an astringent and emollient, as it contains mucilage, several saponins, coumarin and glycosides. Dioscorides recommended it for diseases of the lung and it is now widely available in health and herbal stores. Non-medical uses have included dyeing and making torches.
[edit]
Medical uses

Dioscorides first recommended the plant 2000 years ago, against pulmonary diseases,[66] and this has remained one of its primary uses, especially against cough. Leaf decoctions or herbal teas were used for expectoration, consumption, dry cough, bronchitis, sore throat and hemorrhoids. Leaves were also smoked against pulmonary ailments, a tradition that in America was rapidly transmitted to Native American peoples.[27][67] They used the non-indigenous plant to make syrups against croup. The combination of expectorant saponins and emollient mucilage makes the plant particularly effective for cough. All preparations meant to be drunk have to be finely filtered to eliminate the irritating hairs.[48]

Oil from the flowers was used against catarrhs, colics and, in Germany, earaches, frostbite, eczema and other external conditions.[27] Topical application of various V. thapsus-based preparations was recommended for the treatment of warts,[68] boils, carbuncles, hemorrhoids, and chilblains, amongst others.[27][67] Recent studies have found that Great Mullein contains glycyrrhizin compounds with bactericide and potential anti-tumoral action. These compounds are concentrated in the flowers.[69] Different extracts have varying levels of efficiency against bacteria.[48] The German Commission E sanctioned medicinal use of the plant for catarrhs.[70] It was also part of the National Formulary in the United States[67] and United Kingdom.[27] The plant's leaves, in addition to the seeds, have been reported to contain rotenone, although quantities are unknown.[71]
[edit]
Other uses

Like many ancient medicinal plants (Pliny the Elder describes it in his Naturalis Historia),[note 5] Great Mullein was linked to witches,[27] although the relationship remained generally ambiguous, and the plant was also widely held to ward off curses and evil spirits.[27][48][66][67] The seeds contain several compounds (saponins, glycosides, coumarin, rotenone) that cause breathing problems in fish, and have been widely used as piscicide for fishing.[7][73]

The flowers provide dyes of bright yellow or green, and have been used for hair dye.[27][71] The dried leaves and hair were made into candle wicks, or put into shoes to help with insulating them. The dried stems were also dipped into suet or wax to make torches.[27][67] Due to its weedy capacities, the plant, unlike other species of the genus (such as V. phoeniceum), is not often cultivated.

Culinary, Medicinal, Fragrant & Decorative Herbs

Harvesting Herbs
Many herbs can be harvested throughout the year.
For leafy herbs, (parsley, chives, sorrel, etc), cut the stems about an inch above ground level. Trim & discard any discoloured or damaged leaves.
For shrubby herbs, (rosemary, sage, thyme, etc), cut the growing tip of the plant. Do not cut into the old, woody stems. Always make sure there is new growth visible below the cut.
Most plants will benefit from being harvested regularly. This encourages vigorous, new growth & prolongs the supply of fresh material. It also improves the shape of the plant, making it bushy & sturdy.

Preserving Herbs
Herbs for preserving should be harvested on a dry, sunny morning, after the dew has evaporated. To obtain maximum flavour & nutritional content, material for preserving needs to be at its very best. This will depend on the part of the plant that is required.

Leaves should be harvested just before the plant flowers.
Flowers are at their best when they have just opened.
Fruit should be just ripe.
Seed is ripe when it changes from green to brown. For seeds in pods, shake the stem. You will hear the seeds rattle when they are ripe.
Roots are at their best when the top growth of the plant has completely died back, in autumn or winter.

Drying
Herbs for drying should be harvested on a dry, sunny morning, after the dew has evaporated. Cut the stems just above ground level. Trim & discard any discoloured or damaged leaves. Tie into small bunches and hang in a dark, dry, airy place, or put them in a paper bag punched with holes, to eliminate light and dust. When the plant is completely dry, it will become brittle. Remove the leaves from the stems and store in airtight jars, in a dark place. To retain maximum flavour, it is best to store the leaves whole & crush, if necessary, just before using.

Freezing
Freezing is the best method for preserving the colour, flavour & nutritional content of herbs with soft, lush, green leaves, (eg. chives, dill, basil, mint, tarragon). Wash the herbs, if necessary, & shake dry. Freeze them in plastic bags, in bunches, on the
stem. There is no need to thaw before using, just add at the end of cooking.
Alternatively, chop the herbs finely, put them in ice-cube trays and top up with water. Flowers, especially borage, can be frozen in ice-cubes for adding to drinks.

Preserving in Oil/Vinegar
Herbs preserved in oil or vinegar are very useful for adding flavour to many dishes.

Herb Oils
Fill a wide-necked, sterilised jar with fresh herb, broken into pieces with your fingers. When the jar is as full as possible, cover with good quality olive, sunflower, safflower or almond oil, preferably organic. Put on a tight fitting lid. Stand the jar in a warm or sunny place, covering it with brown paper if it's in a sunny position. Shake at least once a day for 14 days. Strain and store out of direct light.
Suitable herbs - basil, garlic, fennel, lavender, rosemary, savory, tarragon, thyme.
Spices, chillies and orange or lemon peel can be added.

Herb Vinegars
Bruise the herb and fill a wide-necked jar. Top up with warm (not hot) wine or cider vinegar. Continue as for herb oils.
Suitable herbs - bay, chervil, dill, elderflower, garlic, fennel, lavender, mint, rosemary, tarragon, thyme. Spices, chillies and citrus rind can also be added.
Fruit vinegars are made by the same method. Roughly chop the fruit in a food processor first.
Suitable fruits - blackberries, blackcurrants, blueberries, gooseberries, raspberries, strawberries.